Group:SMART:2010 Pingry SMART Team: Difference between revisions

Line 1:

-

== 2010 Pingry S.M.A.R.T. Team, Protein Engineering; AKR's for Biofuel Cells ==

[[Image:2010PingrySMARTTeam.jpg|frame|right|alt=alt text|(Left to Right) '''Front Row:''' Connie Wang, Edd Kong, Ed Xiao, Flo Ma, Caryn Ha, Mai-Lee Picard; '''Back Row:''' 2010 S.M.A.R.T. Team Advisor Tommie Hata, 2010 S.M.A.R.T. Team Mentor Scott Banta, Doug Ober, David Sukhin, Dylan Sun, Ricardo Vollbrechthausen, Graduate Student Elliot Campbell]]The 2010 [http://www.pingry.org Pingry School] S.M.A.R.T. Team (Students Modeling A Research Topic) is working with Dr. [http://www.cheme.columbia.edu/fac-bios/banta/faculty.html Scott Banta] and graduate student Elliot Campbell at Columbia University to learn about enzymes being engineered for use in biofuel cells. Features being engineered into these enzymes include (1) self-assembly into hydrogels, (2) alternate cofactor use, and (3) broader substrate specificity. AdhD alcohol dehydrogenase from the thermophile [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrococcus_furiosus ''Pyrococcus furiosus''] is one of the enzymes being engineered with these features by the Banta Lab. AdhD is a member of the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) family of oxidoreductases. Taking advantage of its innate thermostable properties, the Banta Lab is engineering AdhD for use in biofuel cells.

The logical design and engineering of AdhD is based partially on the solved structures of other enzymes belonging to the AKR family of enzymes. Structures of mutants that bind alternate cofactors and those bound to its substrate provide insight into how to engineer AdhD and other enzymes of use in a biofuel cell. The 2010 Pingry S.M.A.R.T. Team is producing physical models of various AKR's that highlight the enzymes' structural and functional characteristics that are relevant to the Banta Lab's work.

== What are S.M.A.R.T. Teams? ==

[[Image:CBMlogo.gif|right]][[Image:NSRR_logo.jpg|right]] "[http://cbm.msoe.edu/stupro/smart/index.html S.M.A.R.T. Teams] (Students Modeling A Research Topic) are teams of high school students and their teachers who are working with research scientists to design and construct physical models of the proteins or other molecular structures that are being investigated in their laboratories. SMART Teams use state-of-the-art molecular design software and rapid prototyping technologies to produce these unique models." -from the [http://cbm.msoe.edu/index.html MSOE Center for BioMolecular Modeling] Website.

The S.M.A.R.T. Team program was supported in part by Grant Number 1 R25 RR022749-01 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), awarded to the Center for BioMolecular Modeling.

== AdhD and Self-assembly into hydrogels ==

[[Image:AdhD.jpg]]

== Cofactor specificity ==

==='''Modifying cofactor specificity, 2,5-diketo-d-gluconic acid reductase'''===

2,5 Diketo-D-Gluconic acid reductase is found in corynebacterium and is part of the Aldo Keto Reductase family of enzymes. It exists in two variants: DKGR A and DKGR B; however, due to the higher thermal stability level of DKGR A, it has been chosen for mutation of cofactor specificity. 2,5 DKGR is an important enzyme in the production of vitamin C, one of the most important chemicals manufactured in the world. 2,5 DKGR does this by catalyzing the reduction of 2,5-diketo-D-gluconic acid (2,5 DKG) to 2-Keto-L-gluconic acid (2-KLG); a precursor to vitamin C. It is commercially less expensive to use NADH as a cofactor (as opposed to NADPH) and the catalyzation of 2,5 DKG into 2-KLG as well as being more abundant.

Line 50:

Line 86:

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1m9h_original/7'>Click here to revert to original display</scene>

-

==='''Inherent dual cofactor use, Xylose reductase'''===

-

Xylose reductase is an unusual protein from the aldo-keto reductase superfamily in that the wild type is able to efficiently utilize both NADH and NADPH in its reduction of the 5 carbon sugar xylose into xylitol. Normally found in the yeast ''Candida tenuis'', it functions biologically as a homodimer unlike the majority of AKR proteins. While Dr. Banta is not actively researching this protein, Xylose Reductase's dual substrate specificity has influenced his engineering of AdhD. Because of its ability to change the conformation of two major loops, which enable different side chain conformations, Xylose Reductase can accomodate both the presence and absence of a phosphate in the cofactor.

-

-

====PDB ID: 1k8c, Xylose reductase with NADP+====

-

Pink and blue highlight the (alpha/beta)8 barrel structure of AKR's.

-

Cofactor (NADP+) shown in wireframe and colored CPK.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/3'>The residues Glu227, Lys274, Ser275, Asn276, Arg280 have sidechains shown in wireframe and colored green.</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/4'>Glu227-Changes its interactions with the cofactor depending upon if the cofactor is NAD or NADP, it has water-mediated reaction with the 3-prime alcohol group on the ribose.</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/5'>Lys274-interacts with the 2-prime alcohol group on the NADP ribose but does not interact with the NAD cofactor</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/8'>Ser275- interacts with an oxygen on the phosphate group on the ribose of NADP but does not interact with the NAD cofactor</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/9'>Asn276-hydrogen bonding interactions with the different cofactors change when the cofactor changes</scene>

-

Arg280-changes position and interacts differently with the two types of cofactors.

-

-

====PDB ID: 1mi3, Xylose reductase with NAD+====

-

== Substrate specificity ==

-

==='''A structure of an AKR with its substrate, 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase'''===

-

A key component of Dr. Banta’s work is engineering AdhD to accept a broad range of substrates. This is a crucial component of his work, because this enzyme will be required to act upon a wide range of substrates when it is used within a practical biofuel cell. Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase demonstrates how an enzyme is specific to certain substrates and therefore help show what might be done to broaden the specificity of an enzyme. The function of this enzyme within the rat liver is to regulate/ inactivate steroid hormones. The enzyme does this is by reducing the steroid’s (testosterone) C3 ketone group. The interactions within the active site and testosterone are very specific, because of the structure and positioning of the residues within the cavity. This information is important, because it will help show what might be done to adhd to broaden its substrate specificity.

-

-

====PDB ID: 1lwi, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with NADP+ cofactor====

-

Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase is often abbreviated to 3α-HSD.

-

Both NADPH (cofactor) and Testosterone (substrate) are colored CPK. NADPH can be distinguished by its by its orange phosphorus atoms.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_default/5'>Non-polar cavity for substrate binding is colored CPK. Leu54, Tyr55, Trp86, Phe118, Phe129, and Tyr216 are hydrophobic amino acids found in the pocket.</scene> The reason why the substrate binding pocket is non-polar is that the substrate, testosterone, is a lipid and therefore hydrophobic. This is an important factor when considering how to modify substrate specificity. In Dr. Banta's fuel cell protein, the most common substrate will probably be some type of sugar, which is a hydrophilic molecule. Therefore, the substrate binding pocket must match the substrate. The catalytic triad, which includes the most important amino acids in regards to reacting with the substrate is at the distal, or far, end of the pocket.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_cofactorbonding/1'>Orange highlights the co-factor specificity side-chains.</scene> Gln190, Asn167, Ser166 form hydrogen bonds with the nicotinamide ring. For more details about co-factor specificity, see the other two protein structures.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_catalytic_triad/1'>Cyan highlights the catalytic triad: Tyr55, Asp50, and Lys84.</scene> These three amino acids perform a reaction called a proton relay to transfer electrons between substrate and cofactor. 3α-HSD is capable of running the reaction both ways, either oxidizing or reducing the substrate and cofactor depending on the state in which testosterone must be. Tyr55 acts as acid, donates proton to steroid-->Tyr55 forms hydrogen bond to Lys84 to stabilize-->Lys84 forms salt link to Asp50 for further stability. In Dr. Banta's protein, this reaction must only be run so that the sugar will be oxidized to reduce the cofactor. The transfer of electrons from cofactor to circuit is already fairly efficient, but the key to an efficient reaction is in transfering the electron from substrate to cofactor. This is where the catalytic triad is extremely important.

-

Dark Grey highlights the beta barrel and helix structure. The barrel consists of eight parallel beta strands and eight anti-parallel alpha helices. The bottom is sealed by two antiparallel beta strands (6-10 and 13-18). This structure is common to all members of the AKR family. It provides a convenient way to keep all reactants in the same vicinity and out of the external environment. This applies to reactions in both 3α-HSD and in alcohol dehydrogenase.

-

-

Click Here to view the Beta barrel in blue and Helices in red.</scene>

-

The top contains two solvent exposed loops (loop A: 116-142 and loop B: 217-235)

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_loops/1'>Purple and Blue highlight the two solvent exposed loops (Purple: Loop A, Blue: Loop B)</scene>. The loops are important for two different reasons. Loop A is responsible for the substrate binding. It holds many of the amino acids responsible for the hydrophobic substrate binding pocket. Loop B is also important to substrate binding as, it undergoes large conformational changes to accommodate the substrate. In this structure (1lwi), the substrate is absent and this loop is in its extended position. This opening and closing "garage door" mechanism is convenient for working through a large number of substrates, as the substrates can enter and exit easily. In the rat liver, each protein needs to convert as many steroids as possible to change the signal that is being sent out. In Dr. Banta's fuel cell, each protein would need to oxidize sugar molecules quickly to establish a current.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_default/6'>Revert to default scene display</scene>

-

-

====PDB ID: 1afs, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with cofactor and testosterone====

-

Testosterone (substrate) and NADPH (cofactor) are colored CPK.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_cavity/1'>Non-polar cavity for substrate binding is colored CPK.</scene> Leu54, Tyr55, Trp86, Phe118, Phe129, and Tyr216 are hydrophobic amino acids found in the pocket. The catalytic triad is at the distal end of the pocket.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_cofactorspecificity/1'>Orange highlights the cofactor specificity sidechains. </scene> Gln90, Asn167, Ser166 form hydrogen bonds with the nicotinamide ring.

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_safetybelt/1'>Green highlights the safety belt mechanism in 1AFS.</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_catalytictriad/1'>Cyan highlights the catalytic triad: Tyr55, Asp50, and Lys84.</scene> Tyr55 acts as acid, donates proton to steroid-->Tyr55 forms hydrogen bond to Lys84 to stabilize-->Lys84 forms salt link to Asp50 for further stability

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_default/6'>Dark Gray highlights the beta barrel and helix structure.</scene> The barrel consists of eight parallel beta strands and eight antiparallel alpha helices. The bottom is sealed by two antiparallel beta strands (6-10 and 13-18).

-

The top contains two solvent exposed loops (loop A: 116-142 and loop B: 217-235) <scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_loops/1'>Purple and Blue highlight the two solvent exposed loops (Purple: Loop A, Blue: Loop B)</scene>

-

<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_default/5'>Revert to default scene display</scene>

-

=='''Reference'''==

-'''Biofuel cells'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:15669171</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:17399977</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:16781864</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-'''Aldo-keto reductases'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12663943</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-'''AdhD and hydrogels'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:19577577</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-'''Modifying cofactor specificity, 2,5-diketo-d-gluconic acid reductase'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:9618487</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12733986</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-'''Innate dual cofactor use, Xylose reductase'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12102621</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12733986</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-'''Substrate binding by an AKR, Rat liver 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase'''

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:8146147</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:8718859</ref><references group="xtra"/>

-<ref group="xtra">PMID:9261071</ref><references group="xtra"/>

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+-
+== 2010 Pingry S.M.A.R.T. Team, Protein Engineering; AKR's for Biofuel Cells ==
+[[Image:2010PingrySMARTTeam.jpg|frame|right|alt=alt text|(Left to Right) '''Front Row:''' Connie Wang, Edd Kong, Ed Xiao, Flo Ma, Caryn Ha, Mai-Lee Picard; '''Back Row:''' 2010 S.M.A.R.T. Team Advisor Tommie Hata, 2010 S.M.A.R.T. Team Mentor Scott Banta, Doug Ober, David Sukhin, Dylan Sun, Ricardo Vollbrechthausen, Graduate Student Elliot Campbell]]The 2010 [http://www.pingry.org Pingry School] S.M.A.R.T. Team (Students Modeling A Research Topic) is working with Dr. [http://www.cheme.columbia.edu/fac-bios/banta/faculty.html Scott Banta] and graduate student Elliot Campbell at Columbia University to learn about enzymes being engineered for use in biofuel cells. Features being engineered into these enzymes include (1) self-assembly into hydrogels, (2) alternate cofactor use, and (3) broader substrate specificity. AdhD alcohol dehydrogenase from the thermophile [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrococcus_furiosus ''Pyrococcus furiosus''] is one of the enzymes being engineered with these features by the Banta Lab. AdhD is a member of the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) family of oxidoreductases. Taking advantage of its innate thermostable properties, the Banta Lab is engineering AdhD for use in biofuel cells.
+The logical design and engineering of AdhD is based partially on the solved structures of other enzymes belonging to the AKR family of enzymes. Structures of mutants that bind alternate cofactors and those bound to its substrate provide insight into how to engineer AdhD and other enzymes of use in a biofuel cell. The 2010 Pingry S.M.A.R.T. Team is producing physical models of various AKR's that highlight the enzymes' structural and functional characteristics that are relevant to the Banta Lab's work.
+{{clear}}
+== What are S.M.A.R.T. Teams? ==
+[[Image:CBMlogo.gif|right]][[Image:NSRR_logo.jpg|right]] "[http://cbm.msoe.edu/stupro/smart/index.html S.M.A.R.T. Teams] (Students Modeling A Research Topic) are teams of high school students and their teachers who are working with research scientists to design and construct physical models of the proteins or other molecular structures that are being investigated in their laboratories. SMART Teams use state-of-the-art molecular design software and rapid prototyping technologies to produce these unique models." -from the [http://cbm.msoe.edu/index.html MSOE Center for BioMolecular Modeling] Website.
+The S.M.A.R.T. Team program was supported in part by Grant Number 1 R25 RR022749-01 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), awarded to the Center for BioMolecular Modeling.
+== AdhD and Self-assembly into hydrogels ==
+[[Image:AdhD.jpg]]
+== Cofactor specificity ==
 ==='''Modifying cofactor specificity, 2,5-diketo-d-gluconic acid reductase'''===
 ,5 Diketo-D-Gluconic acid reductase is found in corynebacterium and is part of the Aldo Keto Reductase family of enzymes. It exists in two variants: DKGR A and DKGR B; however, due to the higher thermal stability level of DKGR A, it has been chosen for mutation of cofactor specificity. 2,5 DKGR is an important enzyme in the production of vitamin C, one of the most important chemicals manufactured in the world. 2,5 DKGR does this by catalyzing the reduction of 2,5-diketo-D-gluconic acid (2,5 DKG) to 2-Keto-L-gluconic acid (2-KLG); a precursor to vitamin C. It is commercially less expensive to use NADH as a cofactor (as opposed to NADPH) and the catalyzation of 2,5 DKG into 2-KLG as well as being more abundant.
@@ Line 50: / Line 86: @@
 <scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1m9h_original/7'>Click here to revert to original display</scene>
 {{Clear}}
+{{Clear}}
+{{Clear}}
+-
+-
+==='''Inherent dual cofactor use, Xylose reductase'''===
+-
+Xylose reductase is an unusual protein from the aldo-keto reductase superfamily in that the wild type is able to efficiently utilize both NADH and NADPH in its reduction of the 5 carbon sugar xylose into xylitol. Normally found in the yeast ''Candida tenuis'', it functions biologically as a homodimer unlike the majority of AKR proteins. While Dr. Banta is not actively researching this protein, Xylose Reductase's dual substrate specificity has influenced his engineering of AdhD. Because of its ability to change the conformation of two major loops, which enable different side chain conformations, Xylose Reductase can accomodate both the presence and absence of a phosphate in the cofactor.
+-
+<applet load='1K8C_chainD.pdb' size='400' frame='true' align='left' caption='1k8c, Xylose reductase with NADP+' scene='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/2'/>
+-
+====PDB ID: 1k8c, Xylose reductase with NADP+====
+-
+Pink and blue highlight the (alpha/beta)8 barrel structure of AKR's.
+-
+Cofactor (NADP+) shown in wireframe and colored CPK.
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/3'>The residues Glu227, Lys274, Ser275, Asn276, Arg280 have sidechains shown in wireframe and colored green.</scene>
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/4'>Glu227-Changes its interactions with the cofactor depending upon if the cofactor is NAD or NADP, it has water-mediated reaction with the 3-prime alcohol group on the ribose.</scene>
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/5'>Lys274-interacts with the 2-prime alcohol group on the NADP ribose but does not interact with the NAD cofactor</scene>
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/8'>Ser275- interacts with an oxygen on the phosphate group on the ribose of NADP but does not interact with the NAD cofactor</scene>
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1k8c_default/9'>Asn276-hydrogen bonding interactions with the different cofactors change when the cofactor changes</scene>
+-
+-
+Arg280-changes position and interacts differently with the two types of cofactors.
+-
+-
+{{Clear}}
+-
+-
+-
+<applet load='1MI3_chainA.pdb' size='400' frame='true' align='left' caption='1mi3, Xylose reductase with NAD+' scene='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1mi3_default/1'/>
+-
+-
+====PDB ID: 1mi3, Xylose reductase with NAD+====
+-
+{{Clear}}
+-
+-
+== Substrate specificity ==
+-
+==='''A structure of an AKR with its substrate, 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase'''===
+-
+A key component of Dr. Banta’s work is engineering AdhD to accept a broad range of substrates. This is a crucial component of his work, because this enzyme will be required to act upon a wide range of substrates when it is used within a practical biofuel cell. Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase demonstrates how an enzyme is specific to certain substrates and therefore help show what might be done to broaden the specificity of an enzyme. The function of this enzyme within the rat liver is to regulate/ inactivate steroid hormones. The enzyme does this is by reducing the steroid’s (testosterone) C3 ketone group. The interactions within the active site and testosterone are very specific, because of the structure and positioning of the residues within the cavity. This information is important, because it will help show what might be done to adhd to broaden its substrate specificity.
+-
+-
+<applet load='1LWI_chainA.pdb' size='400' frame='true' align='left' caption='1lwi, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with NADP+ cofactor' scene='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_default/6'/>
+-
+====PDB ID: 1lwi, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with NADP+ cofactor====
+-
+-
+-
+Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase is often abbreviated to 3α-HSD.
+-
+-
+-
+Both NADPH (cofactor) and Testosterone (substrate) are colored CPK. NADPH can be distinguished by its by its orange phosphorus atoms.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_default/5'>Non-polar cavity for substrate binding is colored CPK. Leu54, Tyr55, Trp86, Phe118, Phe129, and Tyr216 are hydrophobic amino acids found in the pocket.</scene> The reason why the substrate binding pocket is non-polar is that the substrate, testosterone, is a lipid and therefore hydrophobic. This is an important factor when considering how to modify substrate specificity. In Dr. Banta's fuel cell protein, the most common substrate will probably be some type of sugar, which is a hydrophilic molecule. Therefore, the substrate binding pocket must match the substrate. The catalytic triad, which includes the most important amino acids in regards to reacting with the substrate is at the distal, or far, end of the pocket.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_cofactorbonding/1'>Orange highlights the co-factor specificity side-chains.</scene> Gln190, Asn167, Ser166 form hydrogen bonds with the nicotinamide ring. For more details about co-factor specificity, see the other two protein structures.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_catalytic_triad/1'>Cyan highlights the catalytic triad: Tyr55, Asp50, and Lys84.</scene> These three amino acids perform a reaction called a proton relay to transfer electrons between substrate and cofactor. 3α-HSD is capable of running the reaction both ways, either oxidizing or reducing the substrate and cofactor depending on the state in which testosterone must be. Tyr55 acts as acid, donates proton to steroid-->Tyr55 forms hydrogen bond to Lys84 to stabilize-->Lys84 forms salt link to Asp50 for further stability. In Dr. Banta's protein, this reaction must only be run so that the sugar will be oxidized to reduce the cofactor. The transfer of electrons from cofactor to circuit is already fairly efficient, but the key to an efficient reaction is in transfering the electron from substrate to cofactor. This is where the catalytic triad is extremely important.
+-
+-
+-
+Dark Grey highlights the beta barrel and helix structure. The barrel consists of eight parallel beta strands and eight anti-parallel alpha helices. The bottom is sealed by two antiparallel beta strands (6-10 and 13-18). This structure is common to all members of the AKR family. It provides a convenient way to keep all reactants in the same vicinity and out of the external environment. This applies to reactions in both 3α-HSD and in alcohol dehydrogenase.
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_betabarrel/4'>
+-
+Click Here to view the Beta barrel in blue and Helices in red.</scene>
+-
+-
+-
+The top contains two solvent exposed loops (loop A: 116-142 and loop B: 217-235)
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_loops/1'>Purple and Blue highlight the two solvent exposed loops (Purple: Loop A, Blue: Loop B)</scene>. The loops are important for two different reasons. Loop A is responsible for the substrate binding. It holds many of the amino acids responsible for the hydrophobic substrate binding pocket. Loop B is also important to substrate binding as, it undergoes large conformational changes to accommodate the substrate. In this structure (1lwi), the substrate is absent and this loop is in its extended position. This opening and closing "garage door" mechanism is convenient for working through a large number of substrates, as the substrates can enter and exit easily. In the rat liver, each protein needs to convert as many steroids as possible to change the signal that is being sent out. In Dr. Banta's fuel cell, each protein would need to oxidize sugar molecules quickly to establish a current.
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1lwi_default/6'>Revert to default scene display</scene>
+-
+-
+{{Clear}}
+-
+-
+-
+<applet load='1AFS_chainA.pdb' size='400' frame='true' align='left' caption='1afs, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with cofactor and testosterone' scene='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_default/5'/>
+-
+-
+====PDB ID: 1afs, Rat liver 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase with cofactor and testosterone====
+-
+-
+Testosterone (substrate) and NADPH (cofactor) are colored CPK.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_cavity/1'>Non-polar cavity for substrate binding is colored CPK.</scene> Leu54, Tyr55, Trp86, Phe118, Phe129, and Tyr216 are hydrophobic amino acids found in the pocket. The catalytic triad is at the distal end of the pocket.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_cofactorspecificity/1'>Orange highlights the cofactor specificity sidechains. </scene> Gln90, Asn167, Ser166 form hydrogen bonds with the nicotinamide ring.
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_safetybelt/1'>Green highlights the safety belt mechanism in 1AFS.</scene>
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_catalytictriad/1'>Cyan highlights the catalytic triad: Tyr55, Asp50, and Lys84.</scene> Tyr55 acts as acid, donates proton to steroid-->Tyr55 forms hydrogen bond to Lys84 to stabilize-->Lys84 forms salt link to Asp50 for further stability
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_default/6'>Dark Gray highlights the beta barrel and helix structure.</scene> The barrel consists of eight parallel beta strands and eight antiparallel alpha helices. The bottom is sealed by two antiparallel beta strands (6-10 and 13-18).
+-
+-
+-
+The top contains two solvent exposed loops (loop A: 116-142 and loop B: 217-235) <scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_loops/1'>Purple and Blue highlight the two solvent exposed loops (Purple: Loop A, Blue: Loop B)</scene>
+-
+-
+-
+<scene name='2010_Pingry_SMART_Team/1afs_default/5'>Revert to default scene display</scene>
+-
+-
+{{Clear}}
+-
+-
+-
+=='''Reference'''==
+-'''Biofuel cells'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:15669171</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:17399977</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:16781864</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-'''Aldo-keto reductases'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12663943</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-'''AdhD and hydrogels'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:19577577</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-'''Modifying cofactor specificity, 2,5-diketo-d-gluconic acid reductase'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:9618487</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12733986</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-'''Innate dual cofactor use, Xylose reductase'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12102621</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:12733986</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-'''Substrate binding by an AKR, Rat liver 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dihydrodiol dehydrogenase'''
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:8146147</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:8718859</ref><references group="xtra"/>
+-<ref group="xtra">PMID:9261071</ref><references group="xtra"/>